Dream of the Red Chamber Essay Example for Free

Dream of the Red Chamber Essay In the first chapter, the author first writes about the origin of the stone. Then it comes to the very end of the story and writes a conversation between the stone and the Taoist called Vanitas. Next, it starts to talk about the story which first starts with the decline of Shi-yin Zhen`s family. When reading the origin of the stone, I find the description of the stone provides me with a great sense of mystery, which keeps me reading forward. Maybe it is because the stone is of magic power which makes it unreal from the reality. However, the story happens in the real world. As a result, it forces me to read and explore what will happen if the unreal meets with the real. Then it continues to write about the conversation between the stone and Taoist after â€Å"countless aeons†. The conversation suggests a lot of clues about the whole book. According to the self description of the stone, the story`s main theme is love, and purpose of this story is to record the real events and make those who indulge in the eroticism aware of their wrongdoing. Although it gives some clues to the story, but it never gives the detail to readers. Thus, it is just like it gives you soul of the book, but it never gives the appearance or skin of the book, which makes the reader know something about the book but not everything about it. Consequently, as one of the readers, there is no doubt that I want to get to know more about the book. It is very surprising that the whole story starts with the tragedy of Shi-yin Zhen`s family. Personally, I myself very compassionate him. Before I read the book, I thought the book should be very light and happy since it was a book about love among young boys and girls. It is widely acknowledged that the first impression about one thing will keep affecting your view for a long time. Maybe the author wants to suggest something about the later story, so he writes such a tragedy and makes the atmosphere sad and dark. Shi-yin is a good man who helped Yu-cun. He does not deserve such misfortune. Maybe it is the â€Å"Fate† that the author wants to focus on. Another feature that I find in the first chapter is that Taoist and monk frequently appear in the context. In my impression towards Taoist, such kind of people, who are totally different with the ordinary ones, have higher-level thoughts towards the world. They always have deeper thoughts towards everything. I am quite confused by the frequently appearance of Taoist. Is it very common at that time to have Taoist or is there any other reason? What does the author want to express with the use of Taoist? According to my point of view, maybe he wants to compare the Taoist and the ordinary people to emphasis what ordinary people do are always secular and profane, which is because they lack of the understanding of the true life and indulge in the real material world. The first chapter tells us much and also leaves many unsolved questions which force us to explore the answer by reading the rest of the book. I will keep on reading and figure out the answer myself.

User Behavior at Pinnacle Peak Essay Example for Free

User Behavior at Pinnacle Peak Essay Pinnacle Peak Hiking Area is a multipurpose, exercise trail used for both hiking and equestrians. It is a 1. 75 mile one-way trail in Rio Verde, Arizona with breathtaking views of the Sonoran Desert from every direction. Because the trail is not a loop, there is a lot of traffic on the trail, especially during the fall and winter seasons and on weekends. Families specifically enjoy this trail because there is no way for their children to get lost; there is one way in and one way out, no confusing side trails for anyone to take. There are a few areas where people are tempted to cut corners when there is a lot of traffic on the trail. This is quite dangerous as the entire trail is up a mountain and someone could very easily slip and fall. To help prevent people from cutting corners, the management has strategically laid rocks and logs along certain corners so it is a lot harder for people to step outside these boundaries. Parking for Pinnacle Peak is a disaster. There is very little parking in the designated parking lot, and so people have to park on the street and walk a fairly far distance before they even reach the trailhead. Like the trail, there is only one way in and one way out; there is no going around the busy street full of cars. On weekends when the trail is extremely busy, the parking situation is chaotic. People are out of breath walking uphill before they even reach the trailhead. At the trail head there is a large shaded area, decorated to match its desert surroundings, for people to stretch, rest, drink water, and have snacks both before and after their hikes. I found this extremely inviting and welcoming to users of all ages and hiking abilities. However, the trail itself is quite uninviting. The trail is unsuitable for both hikers and equestrians to be using at the same time. It is very rare that you will see horses on the trail; even without the horses, the trail is not nearly wide enough for the amount of hikers it sees each day. Several people would rather run than walk Pinnacle Peak, and some like to enjoy their time in nature while slowly strolling the trail. As mentioned before, families love this hike, and enjoy brining their children out to enjoy it with them. Unfortunately, with the amount of people Pinnacle Peak attracts, there are often times when people will have to either step aside, or stop and wait for other hikers/runners to pass by. The waiting is annoying and inconvenient, especially for those fully dedicated to their workout, and needing to complete their hike without a single stop. Pam Carothers (2001) states in the article â€Å"Social Values Versus Interpersonal Conflict among Hikers and Mountain Bikers† that recreation conflict is a major issue, whether it is on a hiking trail or on a lake. Interpersonal conflict between hikers and mountain bikers may be related to speed, lack of courtesy, crowding, or safety concerns. Safety issues, for example, have been linked to trail design (blind corners) and the behaviors of some mountain bikers who ride too fast for existing conditions† (page 48). The same idea may apply to runners versus hikers, and those who are on the trail to exercise, versus those on the trail to en joy the scenery. The only possibility to helping with the â€Å"waiting† situation would be a wider trail, however that process would be very long and tedious, as well as expensive. Management has provided two rest areas throughout the trail in which people can step aside, let people pass, grab a drink of water, and enjoy the scenery, all while staying out of other hikers ways. A few more rest stops/pull out areas could help out with the congestion and waiting, as well as people cutting corners and possibly injuring them selves. Before you reach the trailhead, there is an information center with brochures, safety packets, and attentive volunteers wanting to answer any questions you may have about the trail, scenery or surrounding wildlife. John Loleit, Recreation Coordinator at Pinnacle Peak says, â€Å"Year round, you have a good chance of spotting wildlife, especially in the early morning and at dusk†. The information center also has bright, detailed pictures of harmful insects, animals, and plants to keep an eye out for on the trail. Next to the information center are bathrooms, very well kept all year long with accessible stalls and water fountains. Because the trail is technically used for equestrians, too, some sort of horse facilities would be appropriate. Water troughs, large areas to park trailers, and hitching posts would all be extremely helpful for those with horses. Maybe with these extra facilities, the trail would attract more equestrians. As mentioned earlier, this site is very popular to families. Children are always playing on the rocks and benches at the beginning of the trail and rest area. In most cases this would be dangerous and unacceptable, however Pinnacle Peak is very â€Å"kid friendly†, and everything is set up for the safety of the hikers. Several runners cut across the trail on busy days when there are packs of people crowding certain areas. Even with the logs and rocks blocking off the corners, it is difficult to avoid this situation. Large groups of hikers love to stop and take pictures together with the beautiful desert scenery in the background. And who could blame them? Pinnacle Peak does an amazing job in taking advantage of its many views. No matter where you are on the trail, you will have a breath taking view of either Four Peaks or Tom’s Thumb, and at the right time of day, the mixture of pinks and reds of the setting sun. I noticed right away that Pinnacle Peak’s trail is not â€Å"horse friendly†, even though it is supposed to cater to equestrian needs as well as pedestrians. The trail has several stairways made of logs and rocks, both very difficult for horses to climb. The trail, along with the lack of horse facilities, probably discourages many equestrians from attending Pinnacle Peak. Many horse owners live in the area around Pinnacle Peak; if they built a few facilities and fixed the trail to work with horses, they would be seeing a large increase of attendees. I also noticed that the trail was built in such a way that it works perfectly with the contours of the mountain. There are stretches of both smooth surfaces and uphill climbs, tight curves and long straightaways. They definitely used the area to the best of their ability when planning out how the trail would run. By completing this project I learnt the importance of planning ahead and taking into consideration how people interact with their environment. I think that when it comes time to plan an event, facility, or specific environment, researching other competitors is crucial, to see what works, what doesn’t work, and what you are going to do to be proactive against certain issues. I expect to use this information professionally to help plan ahead for any event or facility in my future. The more knowledge and little tips I build now, the more prepared I will be for my professional career.

Health Inequalities In Mental Illness Health And Social Care Essay

Health Inequalities In Mental Illness Health And Social Care Essay In this assignment the author will critically analyse the health inequalities that are evident for people with a diagnosis of a severe mental illness. He will particularly focus on the inequalities that exist in relation to the prevalence, identification and management of the physical health aspects for this set of complex conditions. In the course of the assignment he will critically evaluate these health inequalities from an international, a national United Kingdom and a more local Scottish perspective. In doing so he will critically examine a selection of health promotion approaches which underpin the physical healthcare of people with severe mental illness. He will also systematically evaluate the effectiveness of some of the differing approaches which contribute to the management of these conditions and the enhancement of the health and social wellbeing of mental illness sufferers across the world. Definitions In order to analyse the health inequalities the author will first define some of the key terms that he will refer to throughout the assignment. Health was defined by the World Health Organisation (WHO) (1948) as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.Though this is a useful and accurate definition, some would consider it idealistic and non-realistic. Using the WHO definition classifies 70-95% of people as unhealthy. However Davis (2009) declared the added importance of the wider definition of health stating There is a biomedical component to health, but it exists in a setting that includes biological, personal, relational, social, and political factors Looking at health in a little more detail the determinants of health are defined by the WHO (2010) as Many factors combine together to affect the health of individuals and communities. Whether people are healthy or not, is determined by their circumstances and environment. To a large extent, factors such as where we live, the state of our environment, genetics, our income and education level, and our relationships with friends and family all have considerable impacts on health, whereas the more commonly considered factors such as access and use of health care services often have less of an impact. The determinants of health include: the social and economic environment, the physical environment, and The persons individual characteristics and behaviours. Alternatively European Union public health information system (2009) define determinants of health as Many, often interacting factors that determine a persons health or disease state. These include Socio-economic factors: education, occupation, employment, poverty and income distribution; Environment: social support, airborne particulate matter and working conditions; Health behaviours: smoking, alcohol use, drug use, food consumption, physical activity and breastfeeding; and Biological and personal factors: overweight and blood pressure. WHO (2010) declared that Health inequalities can be defined as differences in health status or in the distribution of health determinants between different population groups. For example, differences in mobility between elderly people and younger populations or differences in mortality rates between people from different social classes. It is important to distinguish between inequality in health and inequity. Some health inequalities are attributable to biological variations or free choice and others are attributable to the external environment and conditions mainly outside the control of the individuals concerned. Whereas Samuel (2000) describes health inequalities in a more simple fashion as unjust or unfair differences in health determinants or outcomes within or between defined populations. Severe Mental Illness The Rethink operational definition of severe mental illness (2008) is when people: Are diagnosed as suffering primarily from a mental illness, typically schizophrenia or a severe affective (mood) disorder. Suffer substantial disability as a result of their illness, such as inability to care for themselves independently, sustain relationships or work Are currently displaying florid symptoms or are suffering from a chronic enduring condition. Have suffered recurring crises leading to frequent hospital admissions or interventions and/or place a significant burden on their informal carers. Occasion significant risk to their own health or safety or to that of others. The Ottawa charter for health promotion WHO(1986) defines Health promotion as the process of enabling people to increase control over and improve their health They describe it as not just the responsibility of the health sector and that it goes beyond healthy lifestyles to well being. Health promotion has been defined by the World Health Organizations (2005) Bangkok Charter for Health Promotion in a Globalized World as the process of enabling people to increase control over their health and its determinants, and thereby improve their health The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006) claim that persons with disabilities have the right to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health without discrimination. States should take all appropriate measures to ensure access to health services with the same range, quality and standard as provided to other persons. A UK based study by the Disability Right Commission (2006) Equal treatment: Closing the gap described an analysis of 8 million health records. It confirmed that people with severe mental illness have rates of cardiovascular and diabetes problems that are 2-3 times more common than would be expected in the general public. Bowel cancer is 90% more common in males with schizophrenia and women are 42% more likely to get breast cancer. The author will now go on to explore the phenomenon where many thousands of people with severe mental illness are at high risk of dying early with physical health problems. He sees this as a significant health inequality across the world and will examine some of the health promotion activities that have been attempted to reduce this inequality. Appendix 1 gives an analysis of the search criteria and the database results that he used in order to critically examine this topic. Evidence of Health Inequalities United States of America Miller et al (2006) in a well conducted and robust clinical study in the USA examined the mortality and medical morbidity of 20,018 patients admitted to psychiatric services with a diagnosis of psychosis in Ohio between 1998 and 2002. It identified that 21 percent of cases died from heart disease and 7 percent from a cancer related disease and 3 percent from diabetes related disorders. They cited the possible causes of these problems as medication induced weight gain, poor personal hygiene, reduced physical activity, and increased prevalence of smoking, increased substance misuse and a reduced social support network. In the study they were also able to report that deaths in this client group were three times higher than expected in the general USA population (with Heart disease being the main cause) and the average age of death at 47.7 years was 32 years younger than the general population figures. They acknowledged in their report the need to better integrate the delivery of both me ntal and physical healthcare by collaborating with all stakeholders to improve the quality of life outcomes for this population. They do not however go on to explain how they would take this agenda forward. Australia These international findings are also supported by statements from the Australian National Mental Health consumer and carer forum (2010) who state that the appalling health and early mortality of people with persistent mental illness is unacceptable. These comments from a national user and carer forum are not defined from one particular study but from a body of research and audit from across Australia focussing on outcomes of a series of studies. The national voice and recommendations from a major player in Australian healthcare with a focus on the needs of the patient rather than services is as significant in the authors eyes as a single robust study. They add that these issues are having a significant impact on the persons wellbeing and is also contributing to their social exclusion. They add to the argument by stating that these causes are iatrogenic (occurring as a result of the disorder or its treatment ) They go on to add the other areas that are common in this group and that can add to the impact being poverty, neglect, discrimination, smoking, substance misuse and poor dietary habits. They add that the screening for these conditions occurs less often in patients with mental illness hence they are less likely to be treated. The Australian report adds that the life expectancy of this client group is 25 years less than the general population. An interesting fact that they add though is that their evidence suggests that the client group do not have higher than average rates of disease like cancer and heart disease but they die from the disease 2 to 3 times more often than the general public. They suggest again like the USA repo rt that this is due to patients not receiving appropriate preventative screening and treatment for these illnesses. They go on to state that psychiatrists, GPs and other prescribers of psychotropic medication have a responsibility to monitor the effects of medication on a persons physical state as well as its impact on their mental wellbeing. They go on to recommend a series of actions for the future which include State and territory governments undertake to educate all stakeholders on Physical Health Impacts of Mental Health Problems and Disorders They enable appropriate screening, assessment and physical health checks for all persons with identified mental illness, including attention to dental health The Australian Government takes leadership on these issues by requiring all identified mental health funding to be accountable for physical health maintenance All mental health programs and policy areas report on physical health screening, assessment and monitoring for all mental health consumers in receipt of services Given the nature of mental illness, service providers need to innovate and respond creatively to address the physical health impacts of mental health disorders and their treatment Doctors take responsibility, when prescribing medications for people with mental health issues, to treat them holistically and monitor their physical health changes and needs. United Kingdom Likewise in the United Kingdom Cormac (2009) in a Royal College of Psychiatrists paper cites several papers which indicate a higher incidence of physical health problems in people with severe mental illness. Phelen et al (2001) stated that people with mental disorder have a higher risk of poor health and premature mortality and a meta-analysis of 27 studies almost 10 years ago by Harris and Barraclough (1998) showed a standardised mortality ratio of at least 1.5 for this group of patients however it varied with the severity and type of disorder. Patients with schizophrenia had increased mortality ratios of almost 3-4 times that of the general public with deaths mainly caused by cardiovascular and endocrine type disorders. These findings were reported by Brown et al (2000), Osby et al (2000 and Enger et al (2004). More recent findings in the UK has been the high escalation of the risk of developing metabolic syndrome for schizophrenics which has been found to be 2-4 times higher than the general public, finding borne out in the study by Saari et al(2005) and Thakore (2005). Joukamaa et al (2006) added some additional evidence to suggest that the risk of sudden death in patients with schizophrenia increases with the addition of each different psychotropic medication that is prescribed. Likewise the Department of Health (2010) in the Our health and Wellbeing report suggest that looking beyond neighborhoods and deprivation, certain groups have poorer health and some are uniquely disadvantaged because of a combination of their circumstances. For example: People with schizophrenia: A total of 0.4% of the population experience psychosis each year. A recent UK study found that, of those living with schizophrenia in the community, men experienced 20.5 years lower life expectancy and women 16.4 years lower life expectancy than the general population. The largest single cause of this inequality is an increased rate of smoking, more than three times that of the general population. Scotland Moreover the NHS in Scotland (2008) in their report Improving the physical health and wellbeing of those experiencing mental illness again cite evidence from studies across the world that the physical health of patients with severe mental illness is compromised. They state that research in Europe and the USA has shown that mortality rates from physical illness for those with mental illness is significantly higher than the general population. Schizophrenia is generally acknowledged as a life shortening illness with sufferers dying on average 10 years earlier than the general population. Two thirds of this excess mortality is due to poor physical health. They also identified that this group are developing these illnesses at a younger age and are dying from them earlier with 5 year survival rates reduced by up to 16%. NHS Scotland (2008) also refers to the aspects of stigma and discrimination. They state that Legislation requires that all Agencies dealing with the public remove discrimination and promote equality, yet a See Me(2006) survey reports that some people with mental health problems still feel stigmatised. The Highland Users Group ( 2008) have found that when it comes to their physical health needs they can be subject to unequal access to services and can feel stigmatised and discriminated against when they try to access general health care services. They feel their physical health concerns are too often put down to their mental health problem, especially if their symptoms are medically unexplained. Frayne et al (2005) suggest that research has confirmed that they do not always receive the same medical treatments as the rest of the public and consequently their health outcomes can be worse. Additionally the Scottish Government (2008) in the equally well report highlights Mental Illness and Mental wellbeing as important factors in the argument. They state that Mental illness and mental wellbeing are specific priorities for the Task Force. People with mental illness are more likely to die earlier from suicide, or illnesses such as cardiovascular disease (CVD) and tend to have generally poorer health through conditions such as diabetes. Mental wellbeing is associated with good mental health, but is not necessarily the same as absence of mental illness. Much of the Task Forces work is based on the importance of factors such as resilience, hopefulness and optimism that create mental wellbeing and quality of life. These allow people to deal effectively with lifes problems and normal stresses, to make the most of their abilities and the opportunities available and to play a positive part in their community. People whose wellbeing is good are more likely to look after their own health. However, depression is closely associated with poor physical health, for example increasing significantly the risks of CVD. The author concludes from the overriding evidence across the world that those suffering from a severe mental illness have much poorer physical health which causes them to have a shorter life expectancy. These conditions are identified as mostly cardiovascular and metabolic type problems. There is evidence that this client group has unequal access to health services and feel stigmatised and discriminated against. Health Promotion Models and Interventions Naidoo and Wills (2000) identify 5 approaches to health promotion. Medical or preventative approaches which target the whole population and are aimed at reducing premature deaths and avoidable diseases. Behavioural Change approaches view health as the property of the individual and encourages them to adopt healthy behaviours that are regarded as key to improving health. Educational approaches are strongly linked to heath education and seek to provide knowledge, information and develop skills so that people can make informed choices about their health behaviour. Empowerment approaches are bottom up approaches which encourage communities to identify their needs, develop skills and make appropriate life changes. Social change approaches is a top down approach which targets specific groups and populations and defined by a belief that socio-economic circumstances determine health status in individuals. Its focus is usually at policy or environmental levels. The author will now explore some of the interventions used across the world within the models/approaches above. In the United Kingdom Phelan et al (2004) introduced a physical health check tool to support the monitoring and management of physical health issues with patients with severe mental illness. This would be seen in the above model as a medical or preventative approach which aims to assess need in a target population and then develop an agreed action plan with the patient on how they are going to address the defined health needs. The assessment is completed on a 12 monthly basis and is designed to supplement normal medical care and review. The results showed that 50% of clients had a diagnosed physical illness with 78.3% saying they had one or more physical symptoms. 65% of patients agreed to one or more of the actions available which included getting advice about smoking cessation, diet and starting regular exercise. The outcomes have seen an increase in the quality of the assessment and recording of the physical needs of the patients as well as a huge jump in the activities being care planned within a structured care programme approach care plan. The study compared the group with a neighbouring community mental health team and demonstrated that the use of the structured assessment and care planning tools significantly improved the quality of information recorded. The failings in the report highlight that although the staff were able to assess and plan care there was as yet no evidence that this approach had improved the health outcomes of patients and the life expectancy of them. When we relate this to the models above we identify that the medical and organisational policy approaches are easier to do and measure compared to the change behaviour that is required by the individuals concerned. The author suggests that further longer term studies are required to evaluate the long term health impact of this approach to the organisation of physical healthcare management. Likewise the Department of health (2006) in their commissioning framework document choosing health give examples of case studies which reflect some of the health promotion interventions across the UK. In one study a selection of clients from across a city were involved in a physical health consultation with a senior nurse. This assessment took place in their own home as there had been a previous reluctance to attend clinics for this purpose. Once the health issues were identified in an assessment patients were selected for inclusion in 2 healthy working groups. One focussed on healthy living and was attended by 15 patients whilst the other had a focus on physical activity, was based in the local sports centre and had an attendance rate of about 20 patients per week. A voluntary walking group was also available. There were very positive outcomes from the study which included the following 57% reduction in alcohol consumption Only a 1% DNA rate at activities 32% reduction in smoking 44%weight loss 50% increase in activity levels 95% improvement in patient self esteem Dietary improvements These significant health improvements for patients can only contribute to improving their life expectancy. The author believes that the above interventions fall into a number of the approaches to health promotion identified by Naidoo and Wills (2000) for the following reasons. Medical and preventative- These interventions are targeted at a particular sector of the population in order to prevent the formation of disease in an identified vulnerable group. The initial screening selects those that go forward for health promotion activity. This is a top down expert led approach to target interventions at a vulnerable client group reducing costs in the long term and improving outcomes. Behaviour change- information, support and improvements in access to health, social, lifestyle and sports facilities has encouraged people to make informed choices to adopt more healthy behaviours. The evidence in the outcomes has shown that people have made real improvements in their health by taking responsibility (even though in some cases it was supported initially by staff) and changing their lifestyle significantly. Health education- the specific classes and education provided by staff supported the individuals to make informed choices about their health and the behaviours that they were adopting to support it. Empowerment in this area the nurses were being seen as catalysts of change or facilitators in order to support individuals. The fact that local sports and leisure facilities was involved was evidence of a social inclusion aspect of the service where it was seen to be normal to engage with local facilities and not in specialist hospitals or clinics. Social change approaches- the targeting of this client group in a top down approach by clinicians in many ways is evidence of this approach across the uk. Likewise in the United Kingdom another approach which identifies this social change approach is the mental health component of the general practitioners contract and the quality and outcomes framework that they work to. British Medical Association (2009) states in their advice on interventions to General practitioners that Patients with serious mental health problems are at considerably increased risk of physical ill-health than the general population. It is therefore good practice for a member of the practice team to review each patients physical health on an annual basis. Health promotion and health prevention advice is particularly important for people with serious mental illness however there is good evidence that they are much less likely than other members of the general population to be offered, for example, blood pressure checks and cholesterol checks if they have concurrent coronary heart disease, and cervical screening. They feel the importance of this by identifying a number of targets in mental health two of which relate to physical health and are detailed below. MH 8. The practice can produce a register of people with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and other psychoses MH 9. The percentage of patients with schizophrenia, bipolar affective disorder and other psychoses with a review recorded in the preceding 15 months. In the review there should be evidence that the patient has been offered routine health promotion and prevention advice appropriate to their age, gender and health status. They also recommend that a review of physical health will therefore normally include: 1. An enquiry about smoking, alcohol and drug use 2. A blood pressure check 3. A cholesterol check where clinically indicated 4. Measurement of body mass index (BMI) 5. A check for the development of diabetes 6. Cervical screening where appropriate 7. An enquiry about cough, sputum, and wheeze. Reports on the two targets have seen achievements in the high 90% range across the country hence showing evidence of improvement in screening. This approach in primary care is commendable but there are a number of patients who still find it difficult to engage and access services. This client group require additional support to access services and NHS Quality Improvement Scotland (2007) felt it was an important enough matter to include it in their Mental Health Integrated Care Pathway standards. The GP targets which only include the offer of health assessment are enhanced further and include a recording of the completion of an assessment and actions relating to the outcome which include health promotion, communication with interested parties and evidence that action has been taken on the findings. The author agrees with NHS QIS that it was necessary to take this top down social change approach in order to bring about change which will enhance the health promotion of this complex client group. Standard 13: A general physical health assessment and management of the findings are recorded. Criteria 13a The care record shows that physical health needs are assessed at least annually using the following features: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ the completion of a physical health assessment à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ the provision of health promotion advice, and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ service users receiving medication should have side-effects and physical health assessed and managed according to the appropriate algorithm for that medication. 13b The care record shows information on the management of physical health needs, including: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ information on who is responsible for the physical health assessment (primary care or specialist services) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ evidence that results have been shared à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ evidence that results have been acted upon, and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ evidence that information and/or advice on promoting a healthy lifestyle has been provided. Marder et al (2004) make a number of recommendations in their paper in the American journal of psychiatry regarding the monitoring and appropriate prescribing of antipsychotic medications. They suggest that the key is to identify the risk factors for each individual patient and tailor the prescribing according to their presentation and the potential adverse side effects of a number of the medications available. They present evidence of side effects of diabetes and cardiovascular issues and suggest that appropriate prescribing will reduce the risks or developing or exacerbating these conditions in patients with schizophrenia. This is borne out also in the NHS QIS (2007) standards above in Scotland where they recommend that service users receiving medication should have side-effects and physical health assessed and managed according to the appropriate algorithm for that medication NHS boards have been asked to develop prescribing algorithms and audit tools that will guide clinicians in assessing the physical health needs and using this information to make informed choices on the best medications for patients which have reduced risks associated with their physical health. These systems are currently under development across Scotland but can in the future only improve the outcomes in the physical health management of patients with schizophrenia. Conclusion The author in this assignment has demonstrated some of the health inequalities that are evident for people who suffer from severe mental illness from across the world. Some of the inequalities are a product of the diagnosis itself where patients often have symptoms that cause them to have reduced motivation to help themselves in many situations. Often this patient group also comes with a lower socio economic deprivation with a poor employment and education history which again provides barriers to their self management in respect to their physical health. Recent advances in the treatments available for psychoses which have physical health related side effects and the introduction of the disability human rights legislation which stipulates the requirement of equal access for all has further highlighted some of the health inequalities that exist for this complex patient group. The needs identification and health promotion interventions that the author has looked at separate themselves into key areas. This client group requires support to access to services and all of the interventions identified this need and had both support to access, structured recall systems and the facilitation of services close to patients home as their key themes. Assessment of physical health needs and the prescribing of the most appropriate psychotropic medication for their mental illness requires to be structured and coordinated in an improved fashion. Structured physical health assessments frameworks and prescribing guidelines associated with physical health symptoms appeared to be the best way of coordinating this process for this patient group. A mixture of a social change and educational approach is a model that appears to mix well with the review of mental health nursing in Scotland and across the world with mental health services now promoting a more patient inclusive and community involvement role. This allows nurses in particular to facilitate ownership of these health problems and use their teaching skills to teach patients how to change their lifestyles and effectively manage the physical health difficulties that they have. Nurses will engage with local leisure and sports facilities to make support available in a more normal rather than institutional fashion. Reflection The author in completing this assignment has been able to explore different aspects of this problem that exists in Scotland and compare the Scottish approaches with what is happening in other areas. He has found a very similar pattern of difficulties and also some similar solutions although they seem to be at different levels of implementation. He noticed the American studies focussed a lot on the prescribing issues and getting appropriate prescribing correct. He felt this was probably due to the costs and charging policies associated with the American system and possible litigation if there are side effects of prescribed medications which go on to cause disease where risks are known and identified. He felt this is becoming more apparent in the UK now but the study in America was several years ago. The approaches used were similar but there seemed to be a more coordinated approach to the assessment and monitoring of patients in the UK. The author felt that this was due to the NHS role in the coordination of care across the country where the USA has many different health economies and is focussed on a charging and insurance type policy. Recommendations Mental health nurses should continue work in a patient focussed way encouraging patients to take individual ownership of their needs and promote healthy living. The services in Scotland should coordinate themselves to ensure a physical health check is commissioned; takes place and the appropriate actions are followed through. Patients should be supported to access primary care services to enable this screening to take place. Medication algorithms should be developed and audited to ensure that prescribed medications are appropriate to the health profiles of patients and that medication for psychiatric reasons does no harm in relation to the patients physical health.

Appropriate Treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD

Appropriate Treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in Education Political correctness and the constant fear of impending litigation from any number of sources has forced society to find other means through which they can control their children. Though other avenues for treatment exist, recent developments in educational and familial systems have produced a situation where children are over prescribed stimulant medications to treat Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder for educational purposes. For that reason, we must consider the appropriate treatment for ADHD in education. Four main aspects to this issue need to be discussed in order to fully understand the situation: a description of ADHD, the symptoms of ADHD, the statistical information regarding the over prescription and a description/history of stimulant use, and some possible alternatives to drug therapy. It is important to understand what ADHD is. ADHD stands for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder that was originally thought to be a form of "minimal brain dysfunction (MBD) (D’Alonzo 88)," however, it is no longer recognized as a form of MBD. "Along with these changes in classification, investigators identified behaviors related to ADHD: hyperactivity, restlessness, impulsivity, aggression, distractibility, and short attention span. These symptoms formed the three behavioral constructs inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity described by the American Psychiatric Association (D’Alonzo 88)." In both the professional and lay media ADHD is routinely referred to as a neurological disorder, while most experts agree that genetic-biochemical factors influence behavior somewhat, the general public tends to view this as biologically unco... ...view. 26 3 (1997): 369-381. Flick, Grad L. "Managing ADHD in the Classroom Minus Medication." The Education Digest. 63 9 (1998): 51-56. Frankenburger, William; Christie Cannon. "Effects of Ritalin on Academic Achievement from First to Fifth Grade." International Journal of Disability, Development, and Education. 46 2 (1999): 199-221. Jensen, Peter S. Lori Kettle, Margret T Roper. "Are Stimulants Overprescribed? Treatment of ADHD in Four U.S. Communitites." Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychology. 38 7 (1999): 797-804. Maynard, R.. "Omaha Pupils Given "Behavior Drugs." Washington Post 29 June 1970: A8. Read, J.S. "Ritalin: It's not the Teacher's Decision." CEC Today. 2 (1995): 14. Yehle, A.K.; Wambold, Clark. "An ADHD Success Story: Strategies for Teachers and Students." Teaching Exceptional Children. 30 (1998): 6 8-13.

Analysis of Major Characters :: English Literature

Analysis of Major Characters Although Lennie is among the principal characters in Of Mice and Men, he is perhaps the least dynamic. He undergoes no significant changes, development, or growth throughout the novel and remains exactly as the reader encounters him in the opening pages. Simply put, he loves to pet soft things, is blindly devoted to George and their vision of the farm, and possesses incredible physical strength. Nearly every scene in which Lennie appears confirms these and only these characteristics. Although Steinbeck’s insistent repetition of these characteristics makes Lennie a rather flat character, Lennie’s simplicity is central to Steinbeck’s conception of the novel. Of Mice and Men is a very short work that manages to build up an extremely powerful impact. Since the tragedy depends upon the outcome seeming to be inevitable, the reader must know from the start that Lennie is doomed, and must be sympathetic to him. Steinbeck achieves these two feats by creating a protagonist who earns the reader’s sympathy because of his utter helplessness in the face of the events that unfold. Lennie is totally defenseless. He cannot avoid the dangers presented by Curley, Curley’s wife, or the world at large. His innocence raises him to a standard of pure goodness that is more poetic and literary than realistic. His enthusiasm for the vision of their future farm proves contagious as he convinces George, Candy, Crooks, and the reader that such a paradise might be possible. But he is a character whom Steinbeck sets up for disaster, a character whose innocence only seems to ensure his inevitable destruction. George Like Lennie, George can be defined by a few distinct characteristics. He is short-tempered but a loving and devoted friend, whose frequent protests against life with Lennie never weaken his commitment to protecting his friend. George’s first words, a stern warning to Lennie not to drink so much lest he get sick, set the tone of their relationship. George may be terse and impatient at times, but he never strays from his primary purpose of protecting Lennie. Unlike Lennie, however, George does change as the story progresses. The reader learns that he is capable of change and growth during his conversation with Slim, during which he admits that he once abused Lennie for his own amusement. From this incident George learned the moral lesson that it is wrong to take advantage of the weak. Of Mice and Men follows him toward a difficult realization that the world is designed to prey on the weak. At the start of the novel, George is something of an idealist. Despite his hardened, sometimes gruff exterior, he believes in the story of their future farm that he tells

Relationship of Self-Esteem to Objective Success: Is it a Cause or Cons

It has been stipulated that self-esteem is one of the most studied concepts in social psychology. In the now classic study Pygmalion in the Classroom by Rosenthal and Jacobsen, it highlights how teachers' unfounded beliefs about their students became objective realities of the students performance (Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger, & Vohs, 2003, p. 2). Early studies like this one has ignited the pursuit to find ways to increase self-esteem and encourage instillment, or creation, of self-esteem to guarantee future success. Because it is so popularly studied, results of studies investigating variables associated with self-esteem often significantly vary. In our individualistic culture, having high-self esteem is a coveted state. Through multiple studies exploring this topic, perhaps a conclusion can be made about the relationship between self-esteem and success. Is self-esteem a predictor of success or a result of achieving the success? A previous study called "Predictors of situational disengagement in the academic setting," the authors Stephan, Caudroit, Boichà ©, and Sarrazin (2011) examined the predictors of discounting or devaluing negative feedback in a physical education class in France. By comparing the grades received in class (of which the participants were informed) and the reports of the students type of motivation, as well as their perceived competence in the subject (p.446). The researchers measured the level of disengagement and perceived competence following receiving the individual grades. They identified three different kinds of motivation is from the self-determination theory: intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation, or absence of motivation (p.444). If an unsatisfactory grade was receiv... ...eral self-esteem to school achievement. Personality and Individual Differences, 45, 599-564. Ramsdal, G.H. (2008). Differential relations between two dimensions of self-esteem and the Big Five? Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 49, 333-338. Stephan, Y., Caudroit, J., Boichà ©, J., Sarrazin, P. (2011). Predictors of situational disengagement in the academic setting: The contribution of grades, perceived competence, and academic motivation. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 441-455. Stumpp, T., Muck, P.M., Hà ¼lscheger, U.R., Judge, T.A., & Mair, G.W. (2010). Core self-evaulations in Germany:Validation of a German measure of its relationship with career success. Applied Psychoology: An International Review, 59, 674-700. Zhang, M., & Cross, S.E. (2011). Emotion is memories of success and failure: A cultural perspective. Emotion, 11, 866-880. Relationship of Self-Esteem to Objective Success: Is it a Cause or Cons It has been stipulated that self-esteem is one of the most studied concepts in social psychology. In the now classic study Pygmalion in the Classroom by Rosenthal and Jacobsen, it highlights how teachers' unfounded beliefs about their students became objective realities of the students performance (Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger, & Vohs, 2003, p. 2). Early studies like this one has ignited the pursuit to find ways to increase self-esteem and encourage instillment, or creation, of self-esteem to guarantee future success. Because it is so popularly studied, results of studies investigating variables associated with self-esteem often significantly vary. In our individualistic culture, having high-self esteem is a coveted state. Through multiple studies exploring this topic, perhaps a conclusion can be made about the relationship between self-esteem and success. Is self-esteem a predictor of success or a result of achieving the success? A previous study called "Predictors of situational disengagement in the academic setting," the authors Stephan, Caudroit, Boichà ©, and Sarrazin (2011) examined the predictors of discounting or devaluing negative feedback in a physical education class in France. By comparing the grades received in class (of which the participants were informed) and the reports of the students type of motivation, as well as their perceived competence in the subject (p.446). The researchers measured the level of disengagement and perceived competence following receiving the individual grades. They identified three different kinds of motivation is from the self-determination theory: intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation, or absence of motivation (p.444). If an unsatisfactory grade was receiv... ...eral self-esteem to school achievement. Personality and Individual Differences, 45, 599-564. Ramsdal, G.H. (2008). Differential relations between two dimensions of self-esteem and the Big Five? Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 49, 333-338. Stephan, Y., Caudroit, J., Boichà ©, J., Sarrazin, P. (2011). Predictors of situational disengagement in the academic setting: The contribution of grades, perceived competence, and academic motivation. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 441-455. Stumpp, T., Muck, P.M., Hà ¼lscheger, U.R., Judge, T.A., & Mair, G.W. (2010). Core self-evaulations in Germany:Validation of a German measure of its relationship with career success. Applied Psychoology: An International Review, 59, 674-700. Zhang, M., & Cross, S.E. (2011). Emotion is memories of success and failure: A cultural perspective. Emotion, 11, 866-880.

Pidgins and Creoles Essay

A.1 THE DEFINITION OF PIDGIN The etymology of pidgin is uncertain. The Oxford English Dictionary derives it from the English word business as pronounced in Chinese Pidgin English, which was of course used for transacting business. Other possible sources derived pidjom ‘exchange, trade, redemption; a Chinese pronunciation of the Portuguese word ocupaà §Ãƒ £o ‘business’; or a South Seas pronunciation of English beach as beachee, from the location where the language was often used (Mà ¼hlhà ¤usler, in Holm, 2004). A pidgin is a language with no native speakers: it is no one’s first language but is a contact language. That is, it is the product of a multilingual situation in which those who wish to communicate must find or improvise a simple language system that will enable them to do so. Very often too, that situation is one in which there is an imbalance of power among the languages as the speakers of one language dominate the speakers of the other languages economically and socially. A highly codified language often accompanies that dominant position. A pidgin is therefore sometimes regarded as a ‘reduced’ variety of a ‘normal’ language, i.e., one of the aforementioned dominant languages, with simplification of the grammar and vocabulary of that language, considerable phonological variation, and an admixture of local vocabulary to meet the special needs of the contact group (Wardhaugh, 2006, pp. 61). According to Holm (2004, pp. 4–5) a pidgin is a reduced language that results from extended contact between groups of people with no language in common; it evolves when they need some means of verbal communication, perhaps for trade, but no group learns the native language of any other group for social reasons that may include lack of trust or close contact. Usually those with less power (speakers of substrate languages) are more accommodating and use words from the language of those with more power (the superstrate), although the mea ning, form and use of these words may be influenced by the substrate languages. When dealing with the other groups, the superstrate speakers adopt many of these changes to make themselves more readily understood and no longer try to speak as they do within their own group. Winford (in Wardhaugh, 2006, pp. 63) points out that ‘pidginization is really a complex  combination of different processes of change, including reduction and simplification of input materials, internal innovation, and regularization of structure, with L1 influence also playing a role.’ Pidgin is words thrown out, there is no structure, and usually it is not long lasting. However, adults who learn pidgin usually speak it for the rest of their lives, and consequently, they do not develop grammar. A pidgin is a restricted language which is used to communicate between two social groups of which one is in a more dominant position than the other. It involves situations in which a population speaks several different languages and is required to communicate on a regular basis, but none of the languages of the population has primacy over the others. This situation is often found where multiple societies trade or where slave populations from multiple locations are brought into one area. The speakers create a mutual language using words from the speakers’ mother tongues and an extremely flexible, simplified grammar. Most linguists do not consider a pidgin to be a full-fledged language, but something that is used together due to circumstances and omitted when it is no longer needed. Todd (2005, pp. 17) mention there are various theories about the origin of pidgins which have been proposed in the last hundred years or so. These can be presented as a basic group of five theories which show a degree of overlap; note that a mixture of origins is also a possibility which should also be considered. 1.The Baby-Talk Theory At the end of the last century Charles Leland, when discussing China coast pidgin English, noted that there were many similarities with the speech of children such as the following features: a.High percentage of content words with a correspondingly low number of function words. b.Little morphological marking. c.Word classes more flexible than in adult language (free conversion) d.Contrasts in area of pronouns greatly reduced. e.Number of inflections minimised Later linguists, notably Jespersen and Bloomfield, maintained that the characteristics of pidgins result from ‘imperfect mastery of a language which in its initial stage, in the child with its first language and in the  grown-up with a second language learnt by imperfect methods, leads to a superficial knowledge of the most indispensable word, with total disregard of grammar’ (Jespersen 1922: 234). The evaluative nature of such views would be rejected by linguists today. 2.Independent Parallel Development Theory This view maintains that the obvious similarities between the world’s pidgins and creoles arose on independent but parallel lines due to the fact that they all are derived from languages of Indo-European stock and, in the case of the Atlantic varieties, due to their sharing a common West African substratum. Furthermore, scholars like Robert Hall specify that the similar social and physical conditions under which pidgins arose were responsible for the development of similar linguistic structures. 3.Nautical Jargon Theory As early as 1938 the American linguist John Reinecke noted the possible influence of nautical jargon on pidgins. It is obvious that on many of the original voyages of discovery to the developing world many nationalities were represented among the crews of the ships. This fact led to the development of a core vocabulary of nautical items and a simplified grammar (at least as regards English). Later pidgins show many of these lexical items irrespective of where the language varieties are spoken. Thus the word capsise turns up with the meaning ‘turn over’ or ‘spill’ in both West Atlantic and Pacific pidgins. So do the words heave, hoist, hail, galley, cargo. One of the shortcomings of this otherwise attractive theory is that it does not help to account for the many structural affinities between pidgins which arose from different European languages. 4.Monogenetic/Relexification Theory According to this view all pidgins can be traced back to a single proto-pidgin, a 15th century Portuguese pidgin which was itself probably a relic of the medieval lingua franca (also known as sabir from the Portuguese word for ‘know’) which was the common means of communication among the Crusaders and traders in the Mediterranean area. Lingua franca survived longest on the North African coast and is attested from Algeria and Tunesia as late as the 19th century. The theory maintains that when the Portuguese  first sailed down the west coast of Africa in the 15th century they would have used their form of lingua franca (sabir). Afterwards in the 16th and 17th centuries when the Portuguese influence in Africa declined, the vocabulary of the then established pidgins would have been replaced by that of the new colonial language which was dominant in the area, say English or French. As the Portuguese were among the first traders in India and South East Asia a similar situation can be assumed to have obtained: the vocabulary of the original Portuguese pidgin was replaced by that of a later European language. Note that with this theory the grammatical structure of pidgins would not have been effected by the switch in vocabulary (this is what is meant by the term relexification). Thus the obvious similarity in structure of all pidgins would go back to the grammar of the proto-pidgin coming from the Mediterranean area. What this theory does not explain is why the structure (analytic) should be of the type it is. Furthermore there are a number of marginal pidgins (Russenorsk, Eskimo Trade Jargon) which cannot conceivably be connected with Portuguese and which are nonetheless analytic in structure just as the pidgins based on the main European colonial languages are. 5.Universalist Theory This is the most recent view on the origin of pidgins and has elements in common with the other theories. However, the distinguishing mark of this theory is that it sees the similarities as due to universal tendencies among humans to create languages of a similar type, i.e. an analytic language with a simple phonology, an SVO syntax with little or no subordination or other sentence complexities, and with a lexicon which makes maximum use of polysemy (and devices such as reduplication) operating from a limited core vocabulary. To put it in technical terms, a creole will be expected to have unmarked values for linguistic parameters, e.g. with the parameter pro-drop, whereby the personal pronoun is not obligatory with verb forms (cf. Italian capisco ‘I understand’), the unmarked setting is for no pro-drop to be allowed and indeed this is the situation in all pidgins and creoles, a positive value being something which may appear later with the rise of a rich morphology. A.2 THE DEFINITION OF CREOLE The origin of the term creole is more certain. Latin creAre ‘to create’ became Portuguese criar ‘to raise (e.g. a child)’, whence the past participle criado ‘(a person) raised; a servant born into one’s household’. Crioulo, with a diminutive suffix, came to mean an African slave born in the New World in Brazilian usage. The word’s meaning was then extended to include Europeans born in the New World. The word finally came to refer to the customs and speech of Africans and Europeans born in the New World. It was later borrowed as Spanish criollo, French crà ©ole, Dutch creools and English creole (Holm, 2004, pp. 9) Just like a pidgin, a creole has no simple relationship to the usually standardized language with which it is associated. However, speakers of creoles, like speakers of pidgins, may well feel that they speak something less than normal languages because of the way they and others view those languages when they compare them with other languages. Winford (in Wardhaugh, 2006, pp. 63) points out that creolization involves expansion of the morphology and syntax, regularization of the phonology, deliberate increase in the number of functions in which the language is used, and development of a rational and stable system for increasing vocabulary. But even though the processes are different, it is still not always clear whether we are talking about a pidgin, an expanded pidgin, or a creole in a certain situation. For example, the terms Hawaiian Pidgin English and Hawaiian Creole English may be used by even the same creolist (Bickerton, in Wardhaugh, 2006, pp. 64) to describe the same variety. Likewise, Tok Pisin is sometimes called a pidgin and sometimes a creole. A creole has a jargon or a pidgin in its ancestry; it is spoken natively by an entire speech community, often one whose ancestors were displaced geographically so that their ties with their original language and sociocultural identity were partly broken. Such social conditions were often the result of slavery. The term ‘creole’ is now mainly refer to languages which derive from pidgins and which, in many instances, share most of their vocabulary to other languages. A creole language differs from a pidgin language by the fact that it is a native language for the majority of its speakers. Vocabulary is extensively borrowed from other languages, but the grammar often shares few traits with the languages that contributed vocabulary. Grammar and syntax are as fully developed as any other  long-established tongue. From those definitions, we can say that creole is the structured pidgin. B.THE PROCESS OF DEVELOPMENT FROM PIDGIN TO CREOLE Originally, by the definition, all pidgins were restricted with regard to user and use. In the early stages they would have had small vocabularies and few syntactic rules; they would have been capable of dealing with only a limited range of subjects, with commands, yes/no questions, and with the simplest of explanations. They would have utilized gesture to reinforce or clarify meanings and they would have proved inadequate for sustained conversation. From these origins they developed either as extended pidgins or as creoles and became capable of expressing the views and beliefs of their users, became capable of permitting intergroup communication in areas where it had not existed before, became capable of sustaining a considerable literature. Not every pidgin eventually becomes a creole, i.e., undergoes the process of creolization. In fact, very few do. Most pidgins are lingua francas, existing to meet temporary local needs. They are spoken by people who use another language or other languages to serve most of their needs and the needs of their children. If a pidgin is no longer needed, it dies out. It may also be the case that the pidgin in a particular area must constantly be ‘reinvented’. Creolization occurs only when a pidgin for some reason becomes the variety of language that children must use in situations in which use of a ‘full’ language is effectively denied them. A creole is the native language of some of its speakers. Professor Loreto Todd (2005, pp. 32 – 40) illustrate the creolization into four phases. Here is the brief description: a.Phase 1 : Marginal Contact This phase would have involved casual and unsustained contact between English speakers and the local people. From such contact a marginal pidgin evolves; capable, with the help of gestures, of communicating physical needs and trading arrangements, etc. A marginal pidgin is inadequate for more than the most rudimentary forms of communication. Since it is largely supplemented by gesture, discussion is limited to tangible objects, especially those in the immediate vicinity. Such a mode of communication is of limited value only.  If the contact is prolonged and intimate a fuller form of communication must develop and the pidgin either abandoned or expanded. It is likely that since the sixteenth century several pidgin Englishes have come into existence and died out. The only two options open to a marginal pidgin are to disappear or to become more useful by the expansion of its resources. b.Phase 2 : Period Of Nativization This phase would have begun as soon as the pidgin English was used by and between local people. At this stage it could be expanded in only one way, from the users’ mother tongues. This phase helps to account for the indigenous lexical items and the numerous direct translations found in all pidgin and creole Englishes. The expansion of a pidgin is facilitated by two main factors: its developing in a multilingual area and its use not so much in non-native to native contact as in contacts between native inhabitants speaking mutually unintelligible languages. In this phase can be occured reduplications. Reduplicated forms occur in all the English-based pidgins and creoles. Besides reduplications taken over from the local languages, three types of reduplicated English forms can be attested; (a)reduplications to reduce the number of homophonous forms (b) reduplications which extend the meaning of the simple form (c)reduplications used as intensives, this type being confined to the adjective/verb class. Items borrowed from indigenous languages, the lexical items which found their way from local languages into pidgin and creole Englishes were often, not unexpectedly, related to the local culture and conditions. Word-compounding and calquing, to extend the pidgin’s vocabulary one could combine different items from the pidgin either (a) on the analogy of English patterns, or (b) in direct translations from the mother tongues. c.Phase 3 : Influence From The Dominant Language When a pidgin has evolved to phase 2 it is capable of being used as a mother tongue and it is from this point in development that it becomes hard, if not impossible, to distinguish between pidgins and creoles by purely linguistic criteria. At this time vocabularies were extended by borrowing lexical items from the ‘dominant’ language. Usually, as in Hawaii and Sierra Leone, this language was English, but occasionally, as in Surinam, it was another European language, Dutch in the case of Surinam. The pidgin’s expansion is normally closely associated with the ‘dominant’ language, by which I mean the language of government and education, and this, in turn, is almost always the language from which the pidgin’s basic vocabulary is derived. d.Phase 4 : The Post-Creole Continuum This phase is limited to areas where English continued to be an official state language. When the contact between English and the related pidgin or creole was sustained and as education in standard English became more widespread, a process of decreolization occurred. When it is remembered that most extended pidgin and creole Englishes have been in contact with some form of non-creole English for up to three hundred years it is not surprising that they have been influenced to varying degrees by the prestigious standard; though it may be only in the recent past, with the introduction of formal education and the spread of literacy in English, that the influences have really begun to make inroads. That the influence could have been a two-way traffic is dealt with later. The process of decreolization is most in evidence in the New World varieties, though it is to be found in all areas where the two types of language co-exist. As education through English was made compulsory in the West Indies long before such a policy was pursued in West Africa or even in urban areas of Papua New Guinea, it is to be expected that decreolization has proceeded furthest in the former area, and that its creoles have absorbed more and more features of standard English. C.EXAMPLE OF PIDGIN AND CREOLE Pidgins often have a short life. If pidgins develop for a restricted function, they disappear when the function disappear. In some cases, however pidgins go on to develop into fully fledged languages or creole. Creole languages develop ways systematically signaling meaning such as verb tenses, and these may develop into inflections or affixes over time. Example of pidgin : These lines are taken from a famous comic strip in Papua New Guinea: â€Å"Sapos yu kaikai planti pinat, bai yu kamap strong olsem phantom.† â€Å"Fantom, yu pren tru bilong mi. Inap yu ken helpim mi nau?† â€Å"Fantom, em i go we?† Translation: â€Å"If you eat plenty of peanuts, you will come up strong like the phantom.† â€Å"Phantom, you are a true friend of mine. Are you able to help me now?† â€Å"Where did he go?† Example of creole : This table is taken from Janet Holmes, â€Å"An Introduction to Sociolinguistics† Creole languageTranslationKind of Creole  Mo pe aste sa bananI am buying the bananaFrench based Seychelles Creole De bin alde luk dat big triThey always looked for a big treeEnglish based Roper River Creole A waka go a wosu He walked homeEnglish based Saran Olmaan i kas-im chekThe old man is cashing a checkEnglish based Cape York Creole Li pote sa bay moHe brought that for meFrench based Guyanais Ja fruher wir bleibenYes at first we remainedGerman based Papua New Guinea Pidgin German Dis smol swain i bin go fo maketThis little pig went to marketEnglish based Cameroon Pidgin Other example of creole are from Tok Pisin. Tok PisinEnglishTok PisinEnglish Bik Big, largeBikimTo enlarge, make large Brait WideBraitimTo make wide Daun LowDounimTo lower Nogut BadNogutimTo spoil PretAfraidPretimTo frighten, scare DotiDirtyDotim REFERENCES Wardhaugh, Ronald. 2006. An Introduction to Sociolinguistic. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Holm, John. 2004. An Introduction to Pidgins and Creoles. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Todd, Loreto. 2005. Pidgins and Creoles. London: Routledge Kouwenberg, Silvia & Singler, John Victor. 2008. The Handbook of Pidgin and Creole Studies. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ambarwati, Rosita. 2012. An Introductionto Sociolinguistics Modul. Magetan: Javas Grafika http://www.uni-due.de/SVE/VARS_PidginsAndCreoles.htm, (accessed at 08.36 a.m, October 4th, 2012) http://www.hevanet.com/alexwest/pidgin.html, (accessed at 08.36 a.m, October 5th, 2012)